abstraction :
|
A term in a notational system
or other information artifact that is defined with reference to the
primitive concepts of the system, or with reference to other abstractions
that are ultimately defined by primitives. It is frequently used to aggregate
many instances, so that all can be manipulated by a single action; thus, a
heading style is a typical word-processor abstraction defined in terms of
font properties, and all its instances can be altered by altering its
definition.
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abstraction hierarchy :
|
A hierarchical description of
the functional structure of a work domain, in which work-domain purposes
are related to underlying physical structures. Also referred to as a
structural means-ends hierarchy because links between adjacent levels connect
ends (upper nodes) to means (lower nodes).
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ACT-RPM :
|
The latest in a series of
computational cognitive architectures developed by John Anderson and
colleagues. ACT-RPM contains architectural mechanisms for cognitive,
perceptual, and motor performance and learning. It was one of the
architectures reviewed in Pew & Mavor (1998). More information about
this series of architectures can be found in Anderson (1976, 1983, 1993)
and Byrne & Anderson (2001).
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activity :
|
The significant and typically
collective endeavors of humans. It is the fundamental concept in activity
theory, which conceives of activity as conducted through individual actions
and mediated by artifacts. In the cognitive-dimensions framework, an
activity is likewise a significant endeavor conducted through individual
actions, but six generic types of activity are distinguished (e.g., search,
design, etc.); at present, only individual interaction with information
artifacts is considered.
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adaptationism, adaptationist approach :
|
The thesis that selection
pressures have been the most powerful cause of evolution; a useful
methodological heuristic is to assume that biological and behavioral
structures are the results of adaptation to the environment.
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affordance :
|
Perceptual characteristics of
an object that make it obvious what the object can do and how it can be
manipulated.
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anthropology :
|
The investigation of social
structure, social relationships, and individual social action through an
emphasis on culture—originally “other cultures” but increasingly the
emphasis is on “home” cultures.
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apex :
|
A computational architecture
using resource scheduling and reactive planning (techniques from artificial
intelligence). More information can be found in Freed (1998). It has been
used as a GOMS modeling tool (John, 2002; Remington, et al., 2002).
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artifacts :
|
A diverse class of
human-created systems, applications, tools, and conventions, including
language and mathematics, that mediate human activity. Artifacts are the
products of prior human activity; they both enable and constrain current
human activity, and their use helps to orient the design of future
artifacts. An information artifact (as used in the cognitive-dimensions
framework) is an artifact designed to store, create, present, or manipulate
information, whether noninteractive (e.g., a book or a map) or interactive
(e.g., a spreadsheet or a heating controller).
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automatic cognitive processes :
|
Processes that are relatively
quick and effortless, requiring little attention or monitoring.
Well-practiced skills, like walking and driving, or signing one’s name, are
examples of automatic cognitive processes. See also controlled cognitive
processes.
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bounded rationality :
|
The idea, from Herbert Simon
(e.g., Simon, 1982), that human agents are rational in that they act so as
to meet their goals according to their knowledge; they are only boundedly
rational, however, in that they cannot necessarily compute ideal, optimal
decisions. Instead, their decisions are bounded by environmental constraints
on their performance (such as the need to act quickly), interacting with
limits on access to knowledge and limits on the ability to process relevant
information.
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claims analysis :
|
An analytic evaluation method
involving the identification of scenario features that have significant
positive and negative usability consequences.
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claims feature :
|
An element of a situation or
an interactive system that has positive or negative consequences for people
in this or similar situations.
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CMN-GOMS :
|
The original version of GOMS
created by Card, Moran, and Newell (1980a). The “CMN” was added before
“GOMS” when other versions of GOMS began to appear (e.g., CPM-GOMS and
NGOMSL), to differentiate the specific representation used by Card, Moran,
and Newell from the concepts in GOMS.
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cognitive architecture :
|
The fixed structure that
realizes a cognitive system. It typically decribes the memories and
processors in a cognitive system and how information flows between them.
This is in contrast to the knowledge laid on top of an architecture to
allow it to perform a task in a particular domain.
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cognitive artifact :
|
A manmade or modified tool to
support mental activity. Examples include number systems, slide rules,
navigational charts, and even language itself. While generally applied to a
single individual, within the framework of DCog, a cognitive artifact is
also a tool that supports the coordination of information processing
between entities within a functional system.
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cognitive complexity theory (CCT) :
|
A computational cognitive
architecture introduced by Kieras and Polson in the 1980s and used as the
basis for NGOMSL. It was realized in a production system. More information
can be found in Bovair, Kieras, & Polson, 1988, 1990; Kieras &
Polson, 1985.
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cognitive dimension :
|
A characteristic of the way
information is structured and represented—one that is shared by many
notations and interaction languages of different types and, by its
interaction with the human cognitive architecture, that has a strong
influence on how people use the notation and determines what cognitive
strategies can be pursued. Any pair of dimensions can be manipulated
independently of each other, although typically a third dimension must be
allowed to change (pairwise independence). (More exactly, a cognitive
dimension is not solely a characteristic of the notation, but a joint
characteristic of the notation and the environment in which the notation is
used, whether based on paper and pencil or computer or even based on voice and
sound.) Examples such as viscosity, premature commitment, and others are
defined in the text. Note that in the cognitive-dimensions framework,
dimensions are not evaluative per se, but only in relation to a particular
type of activity; for example, viscosity is a problem for modification
activities but not for transcription activities. See also
cognitive-dimensions.
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cognitive engineering :
|
A multidisciplinary area of
research concerned with the analysis, modeling, design, and evaluation of
complex sociotechnical systems. It is sometimes also called cognitive
systems engineering.
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cognitive ethnography :
|
A qualitative method of data
collection used by DCog researchers based around observation. It is
“cognitive” because it focuses on computational information transformations
within a functional system.
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cognitive science :
|
The scientific project
dedicated to understanding the processes and representations underlying
intelligent action.
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cognitive-dimensions framework :
|
This states the pertinent values
of cognitive dimensions that are required to support a given type of
activity, and thereby provides a means to evaluate an information artifact.
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cognitivism :
|
Maintains a Cartesian
dualism, attributing human conduct to the operation of mental predicates.
Often associated with a computational theory of mind, it is a predominate
paradigm within human-computer interaction (HCI).
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conceptual framework :
|
A structure describing the
concepts in a cognitive system, less specific than a cognitive architecture.
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constraints :
|
In the context of cognitive
work analysis, factors that limit, but do not prescribe, how effective work
activity might be carried out.
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control task analysis :
|
A way of analyzing work that
focuses on the control that must be exercised over a work domain and the
tasks implied to exercise such control. An analytic phase of cognitive work
analysis.
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descriptive model :
|
A model that describes how a
system or person behaves and that provides a framework or context for
thinking about or describing a problem or situation. Usually based on data
gained through empirical observation, it is often little more than a verbal
or graphic articulation of categories or identifiable features in an
interface.
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design :
|
Encompasses activities and
actions directed at producing new artifacts. Design work is collective and
multidisciplinary. It often includes professional designers, technologists,
and future users of the artifacts.
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design rationale :
|
Arguments for why (or why
not) a feature or set of features should be incorporated into a design.
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ethnography :
|
Originating in the
anthropology of Bronislaw Malinowski, this has come to mean the study of
cultural and societal matters from inside their operations. It is
associated with fieldwork, which emphasizes the importance of participatory
methods for collecting data about social phenomena.
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formalism :
|
A philosophy or practice that
focuses on the manipulation of surface representations or symbols with a
disregard for the underlying semantics and meaning. This may be as a strong
philosophical stance or it may be because it is believed that, in a certain
situation and for a particular end, the symbols capture faithfully the
underlying meaning.
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formative model :
|
A model that identifies requirements
that must be satisfied so that a system can behave in a new, desired way if
needed.
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functional system :
|
The functional system is the
unit of intelligent activity that is analyzed in DCog; it may be composed
of a collection of any number of individuals and artifacts. It is bounded
by the problem, and it includes all of the entities that compose the
problem space and which are involved in problem solving.
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goals :
|
The “G” in GOMS, goals are
what the user is trying to achieve through interaction with the computer
system.
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GOMS :
|
GOMS is an analytic technique
for making quantitative and qualitative predictions about skilled behavior
with a computer system. The acronym stands for goals, operators, methods,
and selection rules.
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hidden dependencies :
|
Important but invisible links
between entities in the cognitive dimensions framework. Frequently the
links are visible in one direction but not in the other (cell dependencies
in spreadsheets, for example). See the text for more details.
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information processing :
|
Within cognitive science,
problem solving is seen as an information-processing activity [See
computational metaphor (of cognition)], in which encoded information is
acted on and transformed in the resolution of a goal held by a cognitive
entity.
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information visualizations :
|
The use of
computer-supported, interactive, visual representations of abstract data to
amplify cognition.
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interaction language :
|
The commands used to instruct
an interactive information artifact such as a word processor or a heating
controller. These commands are a form of notation, but typically what the
user can see as feedback is the effect of the command rather than the
command itself. For example, in a word processor’s interaction language,
giving the command Delete Word deletes a word; in the same word processor’s
macro language, however, giving the same command Delete Word inserts the
appropriate symbols into a program. See also notation.
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joint action :
|
Both people involved in a
joint action intend to do their part and believe that the joint action
includes their and the other person’s part. (See the text for a more formal
and comprehensive definition.)
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keystroke-level model (KLM) :
|
The simplest GOMS technique.
It provides standard keystroke-level operators (D, H, K, M, P, and R) with
estimates of duration and rules for placing the M (mental) operators. It
abstracts away from the goal hierarchy, multiple methods, and selection
rules found in other GOMS techniques. More information can be found in Card,
Moran, and Newell (1980b, 1983).
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learning as development :
|
A view of learning that
emphasizes the triggering and maturation of skills (versus their
acquisition through practice). Some versions construe this as biologically
prefigured (Piaget), and others construe it as socially mediated
(Vygotsky). In this view, people are not understood not only in terms of
what they are but in terms of what they are becoming.
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mediated communication :
|
Human-to-human communication
may be mediated by technology—for example, by telephone or video phone, by
text chat, or by email.
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mental model :
|
A cognitive structure of
concepts and procedures that users refer to when selecting relevant goals,
choosing and executing appropriate actions, and understanding what happens
when they interact with a computer system (or other tool).
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methods :
|
The “M” in “GOMS,” methods
are well-learned sequences of subgoals and operators that can accomplish a
goal. There may be more than one method to accomplish a goal. If so, then
selection rules are used to determine which method to use in the current
task situation.
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model :
|
An simplified expression of
reality that is helpful for designing, evaluating, or understanding the
behavior of a complex artifact such as a computer system.
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model human processor (MHP) :
|
The information-processing
cognitive architecture introduced by Card, Moran, and Newell in 1983. It
was never realized in a computational form, but it sufficiently specified
its memories, processors, communications, and principles of operation
that some quantitative predictions of human behavior could be derived.
The MHP was merged with GOMS through CPM-GOMS.
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motor control :
|
A branch of experimental
psychology concerned with the study of human movement.
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MUD(multi-user domain) :
|
A persistent collaborative
environment that is modeled on a geographic space.
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nonfunctional requirements :
|
Qualities of a system under
development that are not directly related to its function, such as
maintainability or reliability.
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notation :
|
A system of symbols used in
specialized fields to represent facts or values (as in a circuit diagram)
or to give instructions (as in a programming language), usually subject to
rules of combination and ordering (“syntax”). Although the symbols are
discrete, there may be an admixture of analog features (relative placement
of components in a circuit diagram, or layout of text in a program). This
is a wider definition than that of Nelson Goodman’s (1968), for example,
but it is more typical of conventional usage. Notations may be persistent
(written down) or transient (spoken or otherwise fleeting). See also
interaction language.
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operator :
|
The “O” in “GOMS,” operators
are the actions that the software allows the user to take. Operators can be
defined at many different levels of abstraction, but most GOMS models
define them at a concrete level, like button presses and menu selections.
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participatory design :
|
A design movement primarily
associated with Scandinavia, in which
future users of the artifacts being designed participate in the original
design work.
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PIE model :
|
An example of an abstract
formal model—that is, one that is used to analyze a class of systems and
usability problems rather than specifying a particular system. The PIE model
was developed at York
University in the
mid-1980s and was one of the first steps in a new stream of formal method
work in human-computer interaction (HCI) that began at that time. See:
http://www.hcibook.com/alan/topics/formal/
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problem solving :
|
Searching through a problem
space from a known start state to a desired end state, or one of a set of
desired end states, applying operators of uncertain outcome to move from
state to state. Problem solving typically refers to a path through the
problem space that includes explorations of deadend paths and backing up to
prior states. (see skilled behavior for a contrasting type of behavior)
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problem space :
|
A mental representation of a
problem, including the start state, the goal state, and the operators or moves
that allow transitions between states. According to Newell and Simon’s
(1972) theory of problem solving, humans solve problems by constructing and
searching a problem space.
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procedural knowledge :
|
Also called “how to do it”
knowledge. The knowledge of which operators to perform to move from a known
start state to a desired state in a problem space.
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progressive evaluation :
|
In the cognitive-dimensions
framework, the ability to review or test a partially complete structure, to
check on progress to date it is important for novices, and becomes less so
as one gains experience. Some systems allow only a complete design to be
reviewed; others allow a review at any stage.
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propositional representations :
|
Representations that have a
more-or-less arbitrary structure; for example, a word or a sentence in a
natural language. See also analog representations.
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representation :
|
This can be seen as encoded
information, either as a symbolic abstraction of a thing (classical
cognitive science), or as a distributed set of nodes (PDP) that, together,
have meaning. According to the representational theory of mind, human
brains operate on symbolic representations, or codes. DCog extends this to
show how transformations to representations need not be entirely symbolic,
but may be enacted through manipulations on physical media that have a
representational status (e.g., a navigational chart or a drawing).
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scenario :
|
A narrative or story that
describes the activities of one or more persons, including information about
goals, expectations, actions, and reactions.
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selection rules :
|
The “S” in GOMS, selection
rules are the rules people use to choose between multiple methods that
accomplish the same goal. They typically depend on characteristics of the
task or user’s personal preferences or knowledge.
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|
situated action :
|
One can plan to descend a set
of rapids in a canoe, and one can plan and replan as one goes along, but
one cannot (successfully) plan the descent and then merely execute the
actions. Suchman, in her 1986 book “Plans and situated actions”, analyzed
action as necessarily improvisational. Actions are undertaken in response
to the constantly changing physical and social environment. An important
consequence of this is to make plans and planning a resource for action,
and not simply as the determinant of action.
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situation model :
|
A mental model derived from a
text that represents what the text is about.
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skilled behavior :
|
Movement through a problem
space by applying a known operator at every state, from a known start state
to a known end state. (see problem solving for a contrasting type of
behavior).
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|
social-organizational analysis :
|
A way of analyzing work that
focuses on how work is organized and shared across people and supporting
tools. It is an analytic phase of cognitive work analysis.
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|
sociology :
|
The investigation of social
structure, social relationships, and individual social action.
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|
strategies analysis :
|
A way of analyzing work that
focuses on different ways that a particular control task might be carried
out. An analytic phase of cognitive work analysis.
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|
symbolic interactionism :
|
Originated in the social
psychology of George Herbert Mead and the sociological methodology of
Herbert Blumer, this places emphasis on the individual in explanations of
the transactions of people and society.
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task analysis :
|
Any process that identifies
and examines tasks that must be performed, either by users, other agents,
or the system itself, to accomplish the goals of an interactive system.
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tradeoff :
|
An issue (often in design)
that is understood to have competing arguments, usually positive and
negative impacts of an option.
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|
transfer of learning :
|
A learning and memory
phenomenon in which what is learned in one situation facilitates
understanding and behavior in a similar situation.
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|
use/users :
|
Many human activities
incorporate computer applications. In human-computer interaction (HCI), the
terms use and users are applied to the common properties of computer
applications in work activity, and to the people who use computer
applications as part of their daily practice. These terms are somewhat
unfortunate, as the people rarely construe their own activity as computer
use per se or see themselves primarily as users of computer equipment.
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visibility :
|
In the cognitive-dimensions
framework, this is the ability to view components easily whenever
necessary. See also juxtaposability.
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|
visual working memory :
|
A limited-capacity visual
store that is distinct from verbal working memory. It is a core component
of modern cognitive theory.
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|
work-domain analysis :
|
A way of analyzing work
that focuses on identifying the functional structure of the work domain
with which a human operator will interact (rather than identifying tasks
to be performed in the work domain). An analytic phase of cognitive work
analysis.
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|
worker-competencies analysis :
|
A way of analyzing work
that focuses on the cognitive competencies required of or evident in
workers, given their training, expertise, and the way information is
represented to them. An analytic phase of cognitive work analysis.
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|
yoked-state space hypothesis :
|
The claim that users of
representational devices (such as computer systems) need to mentally
represent the device itself, the domain to which the device refers, and
the way in which the device represents the domain. See Payne, Squibb, and
Howes (1993).
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zero-parameter models :
|
Models that can make a
priori predictions of quantitative performance of users on an interactive
system. The are called zero-parameters because no parameters need to be
set from data collected on the system in question; all numeric parameters
can be set through a task analysis and pre-existing data from prior
research.
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|
zone of proximal development :
|
The inventory of
capabilities people can currently demonstrate with assistance (human and
material support) and therefore may, in the future, be able to achieve by
themselves.
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